Industrial and Scientific Revolution
The difference between l and early English resides in accumulation of words added to the English vocabulary, with pronunciation, grammar and spelling remaining largely unchanged. This was due to the Industrial Revolution and rise of the British Empire. Requiring more words for things and ideas that had not previously existed.
The Industrial Revolution came from great British innovation and invention throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. With the harnessing of steam which drove heavy machinery, advancement of new materials, methods and equipment in manufacturing and beginning of new forms of transportation in steamships and railways. All of which was written up in English between 1750 and 1900. Inventions like electricity, the telephone, telegraph, the phonograph, and sewing machine, which took place in English speaking America, continued the dominance of new technology and innovation.
New creations and discoveries were described by neologisms, a way of describing advances in industrial and scientific advances. Using the classical languages of Greek and Latin which most scholars and scientists were familiar with. Even though words like oxygen, protein, nuclear and vaccine did not exist in the classical languages, they were created from Latin and Greek roots. Lens, refraction, electron, chromosome, chloroform, caffeine, centigrade, bacteria, chronometer and claustrophobia are some of the other science-based words that were created during this period, alongside a whole host of “-ologies” and “-onomies”, such as biology, petrology, morphology, histology, palaeontology, ethnology, entomology, taxonomy.
More new words were created for new products, such as machines and processes developed at the time for example; train, engine, reservoir, pulley, combustion, piston, hydraulic, condenser, electricity, telephone, telegraph, lithograph, camera. Sometimes old words were given brand new meanings and connotation for example; vacuum, cylinder, apparatus, pump, syphon, locomotive, factory, and new words created by combining English words into a informative combinations were particularly popular for example; railway, horsepower, typewriter, cityscape, airplane.The British Empire and Colonialism
Between the 18th and 20th century British colonialism really started picking up the pace. With English speakers numbering 5-7 million in the British Isles. And by the end of the 16th century, this number increased by almost 50-fold to 80% for those people living outside of Britain but speaking English. At the peak of the British Empire, between late 19th and early 20th century, Britain governed nearly a quarter of the world's surface, stretching from Canada to Australia, India to the Caribbean, and Egypt to South Africa and Singapore.
In the time of Shakespeare the English language had barely touched Wales, the Scottish Highlands and Ireland. But just 200 years later in 1780, John Adams claimed that English was “destined to be in the next and succeeding centuries more generally the language of the world than Latin was in the last or French is in the present age”. German author, linguist, philologist, jurist, and folklorist Jacob Grimm, in 1852, called English “the language of the world”, and predicted it was “destined to reign in future with still more extensive sway over all parts of the globe”.
The British colonial mindset of the time was to extend the English language and culture to that of the undeveloped and backward countries of Africa and Asia. With profit and motivation central in nature to bringing order and political unity to these chaotic and internecine regions, as well as binding them ever more strongly to the Empire. And to some degree it was true that the colonies were quite happy to learn the language with the aim of profiting from the British industrial and technological advances.
Colonialism worked twofold and resulted in increased trade and new loan into English. For example; Australia gave us a set of words, which weren't that useful outside of Australia itself, like boomerang, kangaroo, budgerigar, etc. However, India gave us everyday words like pyjamas, thug, bungalow, cot, jungle, loot, bangle, shampoo, candy, tank and many others.
With the rise of colonialism came the “New Englishes” which were modern variants or dialects of the language, such as Australian English, South African English, Caribbean English, South Asian English, creating the fragmentation of the English language into mutually unintelligible languages, not unlike when Latin brought about the various Romance languages, French, Spanish, Italian centuries ago. With Noah Webster having the foresight as early as 1789 that “a language in North America as different from the future language of England as the modern Dutch, Danish and Swedish are from the German or from one another”. But this never happened, and in the age of digital global communication it seems unlikely to occur in the future.
New World
When the United States became independent from Britain in 1783 that it began its ubiquitous power over the world. This began with the English colonization of North America in 1600, in Jamestown, Virginia when the Pilgrim Fathers settled in Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1620. With the first settlers being contemporaries of Shakespeare (1564-1616), Bacon (1561-1626) and Donne (1572-1631), speaking a similar dialect. With many settlers describing the new land as “a hideous and desolate wilderness, full of wild beasts and wild men”. Leaving half of the settlers dead within weeks of their arrival, because of their unfamiliarity with the weather which took hold. The ill-fated colony of Roanoke would have left had it not been for an English speaking native American called Squanto who had learned English from English sailors of the time.With most of the New World already colonized by the French, Spanish and Dutch. The English settlers like the Pilgrim Fathers, were to stay indefinitely working the land, and preserving their own culture, religion and language. critical factor in the continuance and advancement of English in North America. Otto van Bismarck, the German Chancellor would later bitterly remark that “the most significant event of the 20th Century will be the fact that the North Americans speak English”.
Many Native American words were introduced into the English language via settlers. Early settlers were mostly austere Puritans and conservative in their adoption of native words, which were largely limited to terms for native animals and foods for example; raccoon, opossum, moose, chipmunk, skunk, tomato, squash, hickory. Many original indigenous words were very difficult to translate in English, and often end up being mangled for example; squash is from the native quonterquash or asquutasquash, depending on the region; racoon is from raugraughcun or rahaugcum; hickory is from pawcohiccora; etc). Words used to chronicle the Native American culture were accepted for example; canoe, squaw, papoose, wigwam, moccasin, tomahawk Some Native-derived words and phrases for example; brave, peace-pipe, pale-face, war-path were quite spurious and a product of the creative imaginations of 19th Century American romantic novelists. New words were created for geographical uses with obvious English parallels and the limited experience of the settlers for example; foothill, notch, bluff, gap, divide, watershed, clearing.
Over 30 million people came into America in the 19th century speaking languages from all over the world. From 1901 to 1905 the peak of immigration, America took in a million Italians, Austro-Hungarians, half a million Russians and tens of thousands from other countries. Most nationalities formed their own centers. With the Amish making their own isolated communities, and speaking a distinctive English with a strong German accent and an idiosyncratic syntax. With many Germans settling in Wisconsin and Indiana, Norwegians in Minnesota and the Dakotas, Swedes in Nebraska.
Newcomers integrated quickly, observing language uniformity as quickly as possible, as it would be in their own best interests. Less distinct dialects came as a result of transportation and communication. “Tidewater” communities around Chesapeake Bay in Virginia who mainly descended from settlers who came from Somerset and Gloucestershire in the West Country of England managed to retain the distinctive burring West Country accent of their forebears. By the 19th Century, a variety of American English had developed, based on the dialect of the Mid-Atlantic states with its characteristic flat “a” and strong final “r”. Standard American English in today's world was known as General American, and based on a generalized Midwestern accent. It can be heard in American films, radio and newscasters, and most familiar to us.
Canada
Canadian immigration has been heavily influenced by the influx of English speakers or loyalists fleeing from the south, during the American Revolution. The speech of the Loyalists arriving in southern Ontario from states like Pennsylvania and New York, formed the basis of Canadian speech and its accent, including the distinctive pronunciation of the “ou” in words like house and out, and the “i” in words like light. Today's Canadian English shows little regional diversity in pronunciation, compared to the United States, and the Irish-tinged dialect of Newfoundland being far and away the most distinctive dialect.
Elements of British English are contained in Canadian English today, and American English in its vocabulary, using a kind of hybrid of American and British spelling. With several distinctive “Canadianisms” for example; hoser, hydro, chesterfield, and the ubiquitous eh? at the end of most sentences. Canadian vocabulary has been influenced by loanwords native peoples of the north for example; igloo, anorak, toboggan, canoe, kayak, parka, muskeg, caribou, moose, etc. In addition to the French influence for example; serviette, tuque from Lower Canada/Quebec.
Spanish words started to make their way into American English during the settlement of the American West, and included words like armadillo, alligator, canyon, cannibal, guitar, mosquito, mustang, ranch, rodeo, stampede, tobacco, tornado and vigilante, some of which came from native languages. To a lesser degree French words like the French word presence, came from the Louisiana area in Canada. Contributing loanwords like gopher, prairie, depot, cache, cent and dime. Along with French-derived place names like Detroit, Baton Rouge, Des Moines.
By 1619 the number of African slaves grew from just twenty to over 4 million in 1865. With the British British had abolishing the slave trade in 1807. Along with the abolition of American slavery after the Civil War in 1865. With the slaves transported by the British and working in plantations of the American south and the islands of the West Indies. Mainly from a region of West Africa which was rich in many different languages, and most were superb natural linguists. Many spoke anywhere between three and six African languages fluently. The practice of shipping slaves of different language backgrounds together resulted in the slaves developing their own English-based pidgin language. That was used to communicate with English-speaking sailors and landowners.
American Lingo
Thomas Jefferson wrote in a letter in 1813 "The new circumstances under which we are placed call for new words, new phrases, and for the transfer of old words to new objects. An American dialect will therefore be formed”. With settlers of Irish and Scottish descent pushing westward, and more hesitant to adopt native words or make up their own. With journals written by Lewis and Clark, as they explored routes to the west coast in 1804-6, containing over 500 native words largely of animals, plants and food.Spanish words started to make their way into American English during the settlement of the American West, and included words like armadillo, alligator, canyon, cannibal, guitar, mosquito, mustang, ranch, rodeo, stampede, tobacco, tornado and vigilante, some of which came from native languages. To a lesser degree French words like the French word presence, came from the Louisiana area in Canada. Contributing loanwords like gopher, prairie, depot, cache, cent and dime. Along with French-derived place names like Detroit, Baton Rouge, Des Moines.
Many other American words were exported back to the motherland for example; commuter, bedrock, sag, snag, soggy, belittle, lengthy, striptease, gimmick, jeans, teenager, hangover, teetotal, fudge, publicity, joyride, blizzard, showdown, uplift, movie, obligate, stunt, notify, redneck, businessman, cocktail, skyscraper, bootleg, highfalutin, guesstimate, raincoat, cloudburst, nearby, worthwhile, smooch, genocide, hindsight and graveyard. The word roundabout originally came from America, but perhaps the classic Americanism is OK (okay), which has become one of the most recognisable terms throughout the world. Its origins are still hotly debated and obscure, it came into common usage in America during the 1830s. While most of these Americanisms were met with snobbery in Britain, and were vilified for being uncouth and inferior by the British highbrows in society.
There are 4,000 words used differently in the USA and Britain for example; lift/elevator, tap/faucet, bath/tub, curtains/drapes, biscuit/cookie and boot/trunk. With American lingo driving out traditional words and phrases back in Britain for example; truck for lorry, airplane for aeroplane. With American spelling becoming more commonplace in Britain for example; jail for gaol, wagon for waggon, reflection for reflexion. With some Americanized spelling changes actually going back centuries for example; horror, terror, superior, emperor and governor were originally spelled as horrour, terrour, superiour, emperour and governour.
Black English
Black English
The Spaniards started transporting of black labour from western Africa to the New World in the 16th century. It was also used by the Portuguese, Dutch and French, but adopted quickly by the British in the early 17th Century. With the British establishing outposts in the Caribbean. The plantation owners that produced tobacco, cocoa, cotton and sugar needed large numbers of cheap workers. With the Atlantic slave trade triangle of Britain, West Africa, and the Americas supplying it.
Then started to be accepted in the Americas, these pidgins developed into stable words, and forms of simplified English, alongside words from a variety of African languages. With many African slaves making landfall at Sullivan Island, near Charleston, South Carolina. And today Gullah can be heard in many of the Sea Islands off the coast of the Carolinas and Georgia. Gullah is an English-African patois, the name possibly originating from the word Angola. Considered to be unchanged from language spoken by African slaves two or three centuries ago. Much of modern Black American English is Gullah and other “plantation creoles” provided the basis of street slang and hip-hop. It is interesting that it also influenced the language and accent of the elite white owners, as well as the modern English of the southern states.
Other Colonies of the British Empire
Australia
The convicts who had served out their time quickly became citizens, and euphemistically known as “government men”, “legitimates”, “exiles” or “empire builders”. With some British slang words, especially Cockney terms and words from the underground of the criminal classes becoming more commonly used in Australia than in Britain for example; chum, swag, bash, cadge, grub, dollop, lark, crack. With some obviously Australian terms which were originally Old English words dying out outside of Australia for example; cobber, digger, pom, dinkum, walkabout, tucker, dunny.
New Zealand
European whalers and missionaries settling in New Zealand began in the 1790s, with an official colony being established in 1840. New Zealand's national identity, and particularly its differences from neighbouring Australia were something the New Zealander's were eager to show the rest of the world. This came in the form of its own version of English, and the fusion of native Maori words into the language.
Africa
Nearly half a million British settlers began emigrating to South Africa in 1820, with another half million English-speakers moving there in the last quarter of the 19th Century. This came on the back of the mining for gold and diamonds. With many Dutch settlers already there since the 1650s, the new wave of British settlers started to anglicize the Afrikaans (Dutch) and black population. Making the English language the official language in South Africa in 1822. Just like Australia, it had its own distinctive homogeneous accent, which drew from various different groups of settlers. With English remaining and still to this day a minority language. Although spoken by less than 10% of South Africans, Afrikaans was looked on by the 80% black majority as a language of authority and repression. With the words apartheid and trek being the best known contribution to the English lexicon. English was looked on as a means of gaining an international voice. By1961 South Africa became the only country to set up an official Academy to promote the English language. By 1993 the South African constitution named eleven official languages, of which two were English and Afrikaans. With English being increasingly recognized as the most popular language spoken.
British trade began around the end of the 16th Century in East Africa. With six modern East African states, all with a history of 19th Century British imperial rule which included Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe, making the English language the official language on achieving its independence in the 1960s. With English widely used in government, civil service, courts, schools, media, road signs, stores and business correspondence. With more British emigrants settling there than in West Africa and its harsh climate. With an educated and standard English-speaking population growing up there, and the need for the development of pidgin languages.
India
The British East India Company established its first trading station in India in 1612. Rapidly expanding, with the first British traders learning the various languages of India with the aim of doing business, learning Hindi, Bengali, Gujurati. Not long after, schools and Christian missions were set up, and British officials began imposing English on the local population. From 1765 the period of British sovereignty in India, also known as the “Raj”, and its independence in 1947, English became the medium of administration and education throughout the Indian sub-continent. Particularly following Thomas Macaulay’s famous “Minutes” of 1835. Welcomed by the Dravidian speaking areas of southern India, who preferred English as a language to the Hindi alternative. While being opposed and derided by others. But a particularly florid and ornate version of English, which incorporated an extreme decorum, and sometimes referred to as Babu English, developed among Indian administrators, clerks and lawyers.
Even though it's classed as a “subsidiary official language”, it is one of 15 official languages in a country which boasts 1,652 languages and dialects. And a lot less important than Hindi, English is used as the language in the legal system, government administration, the army, business, media and tourism. As well as Britain’s contribution to the Indian language, through India’s many languages, especially Hindi, would give us words like pyjamas, bandanna, pundit, bungalow, veranda, dinghy, cot, divan, ghoul, jungle, loot, cash, toddy, curry, candy, chit, thug, punch (the drink), cushy, yoga, bangle, shampoo, khaki, turban, tank, juggernaut.
South East Asia
With the English language being used in elite education in South-East Asia, starting in its trading territories in Penang, Singapore, Malacca and Hong Kong. With Papua New Guinea developing a more pervasive English-based pidgin language known as Tok Pisin or “Talk Pidgin”. Which, today is its official language. For the first half of the 20th century the Philippines was an American colony, and the influence of American English remains strong there today.
George Bernard Shaw, or it may have been Oscar Wilde, Dylan Thomas or even Winston Churchill, the credit isn't clear, once quipped that “England and America are two countries separated by a common language”. With the differences between both versions of English and lying in the American proclivity for reform and simplification of the language. By the 1760s, Benjamin Franklin began campaigning for the reform of spelling. Advocating for the end of “unnecessary letters “c”, “w”, “y” and “j” and the addition of six new letters. With literary greats, such as Alfred Lord Tennyson, Arthur Conan Doyle, George Bernard Shaw and even Charles Darwin, although the British efforts generally had little or no effect.
Reforming the Language
Noah Webster is often credited with solely changing American spelling, this being done through his dictionaries. One of which was “The American Spelling Book”, first published in 1788, running for at least 300 editions between 1788 and 1829. Becoming one of the best selling books in American history after “The Bible”. “The Compendious Dictionary of the English Language” published in 1806, and “The American Dictionary of the English Language” published in 1828. With many changes already being made in America for example; the spelling of theater and center instead of theatre and centre. He was responsible for the revised spelling of words like color and honor instead of the British colour and honour, traveler and jeweler for traveller and jeweller, check and mask for cheque and masque, defense and offense for defence and offence, plow for plough. And the illogical adoption of aluminum instead of aluminium.
With many of Webster’s more unconventional spelling recommendations for example; soop, groop, bred, wimmen, fether, fugitiv, tuf, thum, hed, bilt, tung, fantom, croud, ile, definit, examin, medicin. Which were largely ignored, like most of his suggested pronunciations for example; “deef” for deaf, “booty” for beauty, “nater” for nature. Although he was to blame for the current American pronunciations of words like schedule and lieutenant. Webster also argued to have invented words such as demoralize, appreciation, accompaniment, ascertainable and expenditure. Despite the fact that these words had been in use for some centuries.
It was seen as a matter of honour for many Americans, like Webster, to take ownership of the language. With the development that would become known as American Standard English. These reforms of the English language were fiercely criticized in Britain, and a “Dictionary War” ensued. With supporters of Webster’s Americanism and the more conservative British-influenced approach of Joseph Worcester and others. The Merriam brothers bought the rights to Webster’s dictionaries and produced the first Merriam-Webster dictionary in 1847, they actually eradicated most of Webster’s more radical spelling and pronunciation ideas.
Developments in Literature
New words and concepts were being introduced in the early science fiction and speculative fiction novels of Mary Shelley, Jules Verne and H.G. Wells. With Lewis Carroll experimenting with new words such as the blended or “portmanteau” words in poems like “Jabberwocky” published in 1872. With words like chortle and galumph that started being used in everyday English.
James Murray, the Scottish lexicographer, in the late 19th Century, was given the job of compiling a “New English Dictionary on Historical Principles”. Working on the project for 36 years, from 1879 until his death in 1915. The results were completed by others and published in 1928 as the “Oxford English Dictionary”. Containing 415,000 entries which were supported by nearly 2 million citations, and ran to over 15,000 pages in 12 volumes. Being immediately accepted as the definitive guide to the English language.
English in the 20th Century
English in the Present Day
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